Celt History
Origin of the Celts
The Celts are an indigenous people from Lusitania in South Western Europe by the Atlantic Ocean and were in ancient times known as Lusitanians in their own language.
Continuous human settlement in Lusitania dates back hundreds of thousands of years from the Pleistocene to the Neolithic Period of 12000 BC, to the Atlantic Bronze Age of 1300 BC and to modern times.
Historical Accounts of the Celts
Herodotus, since antiquity described as the father of history, in his 430 BC book Histories, placed the Celts as living in the extreme west of Europe beyond the Straights of Gibraltar by the Atlantic Ocean in what is modern day Portugal – known in ancient times as Lusitania.
“The Celts live beyond the Pillars of Hercules, and border the Cynesians who dwell at the extreme west of Europe.” Herodotus, The Histories, book 2, chapter 33
Avienus, in his 6th-century BC based Ora Maritima, when describing the lands beyond the Pillars of Hercules places the Celts in this same region.
“for by the hand of the Celts”Avienus, Ora Maritima, 130
In the 150 A.D Geographia, an ancient atlas written by Claudius Ptolemy, when describing several cities of the Celts in Lusitania, Claudius states:
“The Celts inhabit that region which from these cities lies toward the interior; their cities in Lusitania are Laccobriga, Caepiana, Braetoleum, Mirobriga, Arcobriga, Meribriga, Catraleucus and Arandis.”Claudius Ptolemy, Geographia, book 2, chapter 4
When describing Lusitania, Strabo states the capital of the Celts was Conistorgis.
“In the country of the Celts, Conistorgis is the best-known city but on the estuaries Asta is the best known,”Strabo, Geographia, book 3, chapter 2,2
Conistorgis was located in the interior of Algarve, in southwestern most Portugal. Strabo places the land of the Conii, also known as Cynetes, between the river Anas, modern day Guadiana River and the Sacred Promontory – the southwestern most point of Lusitania – modern day Portugal.
The first century geographer Pomponius Mela, describes the Lusitanian Atlantic coastline – modern day Portugal and Galicia, as the “Celtic coast”.Pomponius Mela, De situ orbis, book 3, chapter 47
The kingship of Celtic peoples from the southern Lusitania, modern day Portugal to the north in Galicia is evidenced by:
“Last of all come the Artabrians, who live in the neighbourhood of the cape called Nerium, which is the end of both the western and the northern side of Iberia. But the country round about the cape itself is inhabited by Celtic people, kinsmen of those on the Anas”Strabo, Geographia, book 3, chapter 3.5
Portugal means Port of the Gauls and Galicia means Land of the Gauls, where Gauls is the Latin term for the Greek word – Celt.
Other Celt peoples of Lusitania were the Cantabarians, Carpetanians, Vettonians, Vaccaeans, Artabrians, Asturians, Cynesians, Cynetes, Conii, Turduli, Turdetanians, Tartessians and Galicians.
Strabo states:
“Lusitania is the greatest of the Iberian nations, and is the nation against which the Romans waged war for the longest times.”Strabo, Geographia, book 3, chapter 3.2
The Celtiberians were another Celt people bordering on the east of the Lusitanian people. Pliny the Elder believed the ancestral home of the Celtiberians was in the territory of the Celts in the south west of Lusitania and Strabo viewed the Celtiberians as a branch of the Celts from Lusitania.
“It is evident that the Celts have sprung from the Celtiberians, and have come from Lusitania, from their religious rites, their language, and the names of their towns”.Pliny the Elder, Natural History, Volume1, Book 3, chapter 3
Prehistoric Lusitania in South Western Europe
There is evidence of primitive human habitation in this Celt region. The Aroeira Cave in Torres Novas, Portugal, with evidence of Neanderthal occupancy dating back 400,000 years, is one of very few Middle Pleistocene cave sites to provide a fossil cranium in association with Acheulean bifaces and the by-products of fire usage.
Large game constituted the basis of subsistence, with equids and cervids being preferentially targeted. Woodland and open landscapes formed the ecosystems supporting the populations of the mammals that were preyed upon by the inhabitants of the site.
Most of the animal carcasses were carried to, and fully butchered at the site, which was used as a residential base camp. The features of the Aroeira Cave faunal assemblage foreshadow the subsistence strategies developed by the hunter-gatherers of the Middle and the Upper Paleolithic and testify to their very ancient roots.
Footprints along Portugal’s coastal environment are considered the first two Neandertal track sites found in the southwestern Europe. Scientists used optically stimulated luminescence to date prints found on the coastal cliffs of Monte Clérigo beach, along with a single print left 82,000 years ago, roughly four miles away at Telheiro beach.
Scientists have found five Neanderthal trackways at Monte Clérigo beach that contain 26 total prints. They were able to determine that three of the tracks were left by an adult male—likely between 5-foot-6 and 5-foot-8 in height—twice from ascending the cliff dune and once descending. The other two tracks were left by children, one likely between the ages of 7 and 9, and the other from a toddler, probably younger than 2 years old.
Tracks of three individuals demonstrate how Neanderthals navigated dune landscapes and it also gives more credence to the belief that coastal environments were used by Pleistocene humans and that they were important areas in shaping hominin cognitive and social development.
The footprints, a combined result of foot anatomy, gait dynamics, and substrate properties, help tell the story of the family, which was likely camping nearby the dunes. The study of these Neanderthal footprints provides unique insights that complement other archaeological evidence, such as bones or tools. Unlike artifacts that may have been moved or discarded elsewhere, these footprints are preserved in sediments or sedimentary rocks as direct records of Neanderthal activity at specific moments in time. They provide clear evidence of Neanderthal physical presence and behavior in specific locations of South Western Europe where the Celts originate from.
Paleolithic Lusitania of South Western Europe
The Paleolithic was characterized by climate oscillations between ice ages and small interglacials. Archaeological sites containing Paleolithic remains are scattered throughout the region and constitutes the most abundant and earliest evidence of humankind in Europe, with a rich array of fossils, artifacts, and art dating back nearly one million years.
Remains of thirteen individuals buried in the Sado Valley Mesolithic shell middens of Poças de S. Bento and Arapouco in Southern Portugal, may have been mummified prior to burial, a practice possibly linked to their curation and transport, highlighting the significance of both the body and the burial place in Mesolithic south-western Portugal. Archaeologists now believe that these 8,000-year-old human skeletons may be the world’s oldest mummies. If European mummification practices do indeed date back thousands of years prior than previously known, it could enhance our understanding of Mesolithic belief systems, particularly as they relate to death and burial.
The study, published in the European Journal of Archaeology by a team from Uppsala University and Linnaeus University in Sweden and the University of Lisbon in Portugal, suggests that people in the Sado Valley were engaging in desiccation through mummification.
Paleolithic cave and rock art has survived in Lusitania until the present day. Altamira Cave is the most well-known example of the former. Escoural Cave in Portugal contains cave paintings as well as earlier remains from Neanderthals.
Most of the representations are of animals such as bison, horse, deer, bull, reindeer, goat, bear, mammoth, moose and are painted in ochre and black colors. Abstract drawings also appear in some sites.
Côa Valley, in Portugal, and Siega Verde, in Spain, formed around tributaries of the Douro river, contain the best preserved rock art. They contain petroglyphs, dating to 22 000 years ago, that document continuous human occupation from the end of the Paleolithic Age. The sites together contain thousands of animal figures carved over several millennia.
Ice Age Lusitania in South Western Europe
The last Ice age, which started about 110,000 years ago and ended about 12,000 years ago, didn’t reach beyond the Pyrenees Mountains. The region of Lusitania never froze, nor was there any permafrost like there was in Northern and Central Europe. This allowed for the continuous habitation and cultural development of the local human population.
Neolithic Lusitania in South Western Europe
This Neolithic Period is characterised by the construction of megalithic structures, such as dolmens, passage tombs and menhirs, reflecting advancements in social organisation. Lusitania has the most ancient and highest concentration of megalithic structures in Europe. The Neolithic Period in this Celt region of Lusitania laid the foundation for future societal developments, influencing the region’s cultural and historical trajectory.
The megalithic complex of Almendres, is the largest existing group of structured menhirs in the peninsula and one of the largest in Europe. This archaeological site consists of several megalithic structures that belong to the so-called – megalithic universe of Evora, with clear parallels to other megalithic complexes in the region, such as the Portela Mogos and the Vale Maria do Meio complexes.
The excavation of the site unearthed a series of both megalithic and neolithic construction phases; Almendres I 6000 BC (Early Neolithic), Almendres II 5000 BC (Middle Neolithic), and Almendres III 4000 BC (Late Neolithic). It is believed that the monuments either had a religious ceremonial purpose or functioned as a primitive astronomical observatory.
Bell Beaker Culture of Lusitania
The Bell Beaker culture is an archaeological culture named after the inverted-bell beaker drinking vessel used at the beginning of the European Bronze Age, arising as early as 2800 BC. The culture was widely dispersed from Lusitania throughout Western Europe, being present in many regions stretching eastward to the Danubian plains, and northward to the islands of Great Britain and Ireland, and was also present in the islands of Sardinia and Sicily and some coastal areas in north-western Africa.
From about 2400 BC the Beaker folk culture expanded eastwards, In parts of Central and Eastern Europe, as far east as Poland. This period marks a period of cultural contact with the Atlantic and Western Europe following a prolonged period of relative isolation during the Neolithic.
The origin of the Bell Beaker artefacts has been traced to the early 3rd millennium BC, with early examples of the maritime Bell Beaker design having been found at the Tagus estuary in Lusitania – modern Portugal, radiocarbon dated to c. 28th century BC. The inspiration for the Maritime Bell Beaker is argued to have been the small and earlier Copoz beakers that have impressed decoration and which are found widely around the Tagus estuary in Portugal.
The initial moves from the Tagus estuary were maritime. A southern move led to the Mediterranean where ‘enclaves’ were established in south-western Spain and southern France around the Golfe du Lion and into the Po Valley in Italy, probably via ancient western Alpine trade routes used to distribute jadeite axes. A northern move incorporated the southern coast of Armorica. The enclave established in southern Brittany was linked closely to the riverine and landward route, via the Loire, and across the Gâtinais Valley to the Seine Valley, and thence to the lower Rhine. This was a long-established route reflected in early stone axe distributions, and via this network, Maritime Bell Beakers first reached the Lower Rhine in c. 2600 BC.
In its mature phase, the Bell Beaker culture of Lusitania is understood as not only a collection of characteristic artefact types, but a complex cultural phenomenon involving metalwork in copper, arsenical bronze and gold, long-distance exchange networks, archery, specific types of ornamentation, and shared ideological, cultural and religious ideas.
Celts and the Atlantic Bronze Age
The Celts rose to prominence during the Atlantic Bronze Age, which started approximately in 1300 BC. This period was marked by significant cultural and economic exchanges among communities along the Atlantic coast of Europe.
Celtic Hill Forts – Castro Culture
The historical record tells us the Celts lived in both large cities and smaller remote villages. A characteristic of a Celt rural settlement site was its location on hill-tops, surrounded by one, two or even three stone defensive walls, with evidence of rectangular stone houses or associated compounds of circular stone houses.
“Along with the happy lot of their country, the qualities of both gentleness and civility have come to the Turditanians; and to the Celtic peoples, too, on account of their being neighbours to the Turdetanians, as Polybius has said, or else on account of their kin- ship; but less so the Celtic peoples, because for the most part they live in mere villages. “Strabo, Geographia, book 3, chapter 2.15
Celtic Horse Tradition
The horse is one of the animals most strongly associated and intertwined with Celtic culture. We have evidence that the horses were domesticated in Lusitania, with wild horses continually being bred into the domestic breeds. Since the beginning of time, this region has been isolated from the rest of the world by the mountains and the Atlantic Ocean surrounding it. This allowed the horses from this region to develop and evolve without outside influences. Because the last Ice Age did not reach Lusitania – modern day Portugal, the horse and mounted horse culture developed there much sooner than the rest of the world.
Horses have been present in the Celtic region of Lusitania for over 25,000 years. Drawings of horses who look remarkably like the modern Lusitano breed are found on the Escoural Caves of Alentejo in Portugal and date back to 17000 BC. This makes the Lusitano horse one of the oldest saddled horses in the world. This early partnership between the Lusitano horse and human is believed to be the inspiration for the Greek legend of Centaurs.
The Celts in Lusitania used two wheeled chariots drawn by two horses tied to one central draught pole. Carved representations on stelae of humans, horses and chariots have been found in Cordoba (Ategua stelae) and in Solana de Cabanas. Remains of chariots dating to the 7th century BC have been found at La Joya iron age cemetery in Huelva and at grave 89 Alcacer do Sal near Lisbon.
When describing Celtic people in central Europe, Diodorus states:
“In their journeyings and when they go into battle the Gauls use chariots drawn by two horses, which carry the charioteer and the warrior; and when they encounter cavalry in the fighting they first hurl their Javelins at the enemy and then step down from their chariots and join battle with their swords.”Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, book 5, Chapter 29
Several rock art depictions of chariots have been found in the region of ancient Lusitania dated between the first and second iron age.
Bronze votive statuettes of chariots and horseman dated to the 5th century BC have been found in Merida and Almorchón, Badajoz – ancient Lusitania.
Strabo records the Celts from Lusitania held different types of contests including ones which involved cavalry.
“They also hold contests, for light-armed and heavy-armed soldiers and cavalry, in boxing, in running, in skirmishing, and in fighting by squads.” Strabo, Geographia, book 3, chapter 3.7
An interesting story of a wealthy Celt on his chariot is as follows:
“And Posidonius continuing, and relating the riches of Lyernius … says that he, aiming at becoming a leader of the populace, used to drive in a chariot over the plains, and scatter gold and silver among the myriads of Celts who followed him”Athenaeus of Naucratis, Deipnosophistae, book 4, chapter 37
The Celts worshipped the female goddess Epane who was concerned with the protection of horses. Celtic horsemanship was much admired in the ancient world. Diocles was a famous Celtic charioteer from the Lusitanian region, known for his remarkable career in chariot racing during antiquity. He is often regarded as one of the highest-paid athletes of his time, with a record of 1,064 wins in individual races.
This Celtic tradition of horsemanship continues to be a significant aspect of Lusitanian and modern-day Portuguese culture, deeply rooted in history. This tradition reflects the region’s connection to its Celtic past and the influence of the Lusitano horse breed.
Strabo states:
“The Celtiberian horses are like those of Parthia, he says, for not only are they faster but they are also smoother runners than the other horses. ” Strabo, Geographia, book 3, chapter 4.15
Regarding the horses of Lusitania, Pliny states:
“It is well known that in Lusitania, in the vicinity of the town of Olisipo and the river Tagus, the mares, by turning their faces towards the west wind as it blows, become impregnated by its breezes, and that the foals which are conceived in this way are remarkable for their extreme fleetness.”Pliny the Elder, Natural History Book 8, Chapter 67
“Galicia and Asturia…they produce a species of horse known to us as thieldones, and when smaller, asturcones; they have a peculiar and not common pace of their own, which is very easy, and arises from the two legs of the same side being moved together; (clearly alludes to the canter movement) it is by studying the nature of this step that our horses have been taught the movement which we call ambling. “Pliny the Elder, Natural History Book 8, Chapter 67
Celtic Migrations
The Celts at varying stages migrated eastwards and northwards populating much of the Western European continent reaching up to the Rhine river border of the Germanic people to the north.
We have evidence of the movement of Celt tribes into southeastern Europe around the 4th century BC. The Celts entered into the lands of Etruria, Illyria, Thessaly, Macedonia and Greece after the death of Alexander the Great. Some Celt groups continued to migrate further eastwards, eventually settling in areas like Anatolia, where they became known as the Galatians.
When describing the Celts movement into southeastern Europe Pausanias states:
“Now these Galati inhabit the remotest parts of Europe, near a mighty sea, not navigable where they live: it has tides and breakers and sea monsters quite unlike those in any other sea: and through their territory flows the river Eridanus, by whose banks people think the daughters of the sun lament the fate of their brother Phaethon. And it is only of late that the name Galati has prevailed among them: for originally they were called Celts both by themselves and by all other nations. And an army gathered together by them marched towards the Ionian Sea, and dispossessed all the nations of Illyria and all that dwelt between them and the Macedonians, and even the Macedonians themselves, and overran Thessaly.”Pausanias, Description of Greece, book 1, chapter 4
From its genesis in Lusitania – modern Portugal, the Celts and Celtic civilisation over thousands of years expanded into northern Europe up to the border with the Germanic people and as far eastwards into the region of Galatia in Anatolia – modern central Turkey.
The Migration of the Celts from their Origins in Lusitania
Celt Maritime History
The Celts had a rich and important local boatbuilding tradition since prehistoric times.
There are some written sources that mentioned the existence of boats in the Atlantic Ocean. The earliest of them comes from Avienus´ Ora Maritima written in the 6th Century BC, which relates how the people who lived along the Atlantic Lusitanian coasts, sailed the ocean in boats made of sewn skins.
Avienus states:
“Overcome all with the passion of commerce, they sail with boats made out of skins along the cloudy sea and the abyss of the Ocean dwelled by monsters”Avienus, Ora Maritima, chapter 100-107
“they foster fibres longer and heavy for the use of camps and for naval sails.
from here the way is said to the river of the single sun,
and here the boundary of the people and of the Cynetes. “Avienus, Ora Maritima, chapter 220
The presence of nautical representations and important iconographic evidence on the Lusitanian coast such as the Borna petroglyphs at Pontevedra, Galicia, the boat rock art at La Laja Alta and the boat at found in at the Dolmen of Antelas Oliveira de Frades, Portugal.
The paintings at the Dolmen of Antelas are made in two colours, red and black. The radiocarbon dates obtained from the organic elements found in the paintings give a date between 4340 – 3140 BC. It is indeed one of the oldest nautical iconographic representations found in the Iberian Peninsula.
The vessel depicted at the Dolmen de Antelas is sailing over the sea, depicted by three undulating parallel lines. It can be interpreted as a reed-bundle boat where we can appreciate three or four bundles of stems, tied among them with lashings, and represented by vertical lines in the hull. Above the hull there are three vertical lines that could correspond to a tripod mast and a perpendicular line that could be a yard, very common in reed bundle crafts. Another interpretation identified it as a plank boat coaked and sewn joints, more complex than a simple monoxylon canoe.Arturo Rey da Silva, Nautical Iconography from the Iberian Peninsula,
We also have historical written accounts of boat building and navigational abilities of the Celts:
“Gades, however, is outside the Pillars. Concerning Gades I have said only thus much, that it is about seven hundred and fifty stadia distant from Calpe, that is, it is situated near the outlet of the Baetis, but there is more to be said about it than the others. For example, here live the men who fit out the most and largest merchant-vessels, both for Our Sea and the outer sea. “Strabo, Geographia, book 3, chapter 5.3
“Now the Tagus not only has a width of about twenty stadia at its mouth, but its depth is so great that very large merchant-ships can ascend it…And further, not only is the country round about the city rich, but the voyages thither are easy—even for large ships a considerable part of the way, though only for the river-boats the rest of the way.” Strabo, Geographia, book 3, chapter 1.1
Celtic Language
The earliest written records of Europe come from southern Lusitania in what is now Portugal where the Celts originate from.
The Lusitanian language is the ancestral proto language of the Celtic language. That the Lusitanians had a written language dating back thousands of years is proved both by archaeological evidence and classical historical records.
Strabo around the year 30 BC states:
“The Turdetanians are ranked as the wisest of the Iberians; and they make use of an alphabet, and possess records of their ancient history, poems, and laws written in verse that are six thousand years old, as they assert.”
Strabo, Geographia, book 3, chapter 1.6
Strabo records the kingship of the Turdetanians and the Celts in southern Lusitania:
“Along with the happy lot of their country, the qualities of both gentleness and civility have come to the Turditanians; and to the Celtic peoples, too, on account of their being neighbours to the Turdetanians, as Polybius has said, or else on account of their kinship; but less so the Celtic peoples, because for the most part they live in mere villages. “Strabo, Geographia, book 3, chapter 2.15
This implies the Lusitanian-Celtic language has existed in an advanced written form since at least 6 000 BC.
The archaeological evidence comes primarily in the form of stone slabs, or steles, which contain inscriptions in the Celtic language. The Abóbada Stele, found in the district of Beja, Portugal is an 8th Century BC one of several relics showing Celtic writing. The district of Beja, Portugal is the same location where classical authors such as Herodotus, Pliny and Strabo placed the Celts.
Herodotus wrote of a wealthy Tartessian king named Arganthonios who reigned in the year 625 BC and in whose name we may recognise the Celtic word for ‘silver’ – ancient Celtic arganto.
The number of known Celtic inscriptions on stone in southern Lusitania is now about 90 and steadily rising with new discoveries. Concentrated densely in southern Portugal (the Algarve and Lower Alentejo). The best exhibition of the inscriptions is on view in charming provincial town of Almodôvar.
The find-spots are necropolises of the period (800–500 BC), showing that the inscriptions belong to a funerary tradition. In this respect they continue the 100 warrior stelae of the (1250–750 BC) period. In four apparently transitional monuments incised heroic images are combined with Tartessian texts.
The academic, historian, and linguist John T. Koch who specializes in Celtic studies believes Tartessian represents an archaic form of Q-Celtic, the earliest attested Celtic language. Koch’s hypothesis relies on onomastic parallels, such as personal names and toponyms, and interpretations of lexical items which he links to Proto-Celtic forms attested in later languages like Celtiberian and Gaulish.
Celtic Cuisine
We have some written evidence of what Celts farmed and ate thousands of years ago. When describing the mode of life of the Lusitanian Celts Strabo states:
“All the mountaineers lead a simple life, are water-drinkers, they eat goat’s-meat mostly… and the mountaineers, for two-thirds of the year, eat acorns, which they have first dried and crushed, and then ground up and made into a bread that may be stored away for a long time. They also drink beer; but they are scarce of wine, and what wine they have made they speedily drink up in merry feastings with their kinsfolk; and instead of olive oil they use butter. They dine sitting down, for they have stationary seats built around the walls of the room, though they seat themselves forward according to age and rank. The dinner is passed round, and amid their cups they dance to flute and trumpet, dancing in chorus, but also leaping up and crouching low.”Strabo, Geographia, book 3, chapter 3.7
Traditional recipes of acorn bread continue to be produced and consumed in Portugal. In the southern Portuguese tradition, the acorn is not only used for bread production, but also soups, sweets and even liqueurs or coffee.
Athernaeus of Naucratis born in the 2nd century AD wrote the Deipnosophistae, a long work of historical and antiquarian references. In this work Athernaeus further describes the eating habits of the Celts:
“The Celts place food before their guests, putting grass for their seats, and they serve it up on wooden tables raised a little above the ground: and their food consists of a few loaves, and a good deal of meat brought up floating in water, and roasted on the coals or on spits. And they eat their meat in a cleanly manner enough, but like lions, taking up whole joints in both their hands, and gnawing them; and if there is any part which they cannot easily tear away, they cut it off with a small sword which they have in a sheath in a private depository. And those who live near the rivers eat fish also, and so do those who live near the Mediterranean Sea, or near the Atlantic Ocean; and they eat it roasted with salt and vinegar and cummin seed: and cummin seed they also throw into their wine. But they use no oil, on account of its scarcity; and because they are not used to it, it seems disagreeable to them. But when many of them supper together, they all sit in a circle ; and the bravest sits in the middle, like the coryphaeus of a chorus ; because he is superior to the rest-either in his military skill, or in birth, or in riches: and the man who gives the entertainment sits next to him; and then on each side the rest of the guests sit in regular order, according as each is eminent or distinguished for anything.”Athenaeus of Naucratis, Deipnosophistae, book 4, chapter 36
“And their armour-bearers, bearing their large oblong shields, called (θνρεοι), stand behind; and their spear-bearers sit down opposite in a circle, and feast in the same manner as their masters. And those who act as cup-bearers and bring round the wine, bring it round in jars made either of earthenware or of silver, like ordinary casks in shape, and the name they give them is a (αμβικοζ). And their platters on which they serve up the meat are also made of the same material; but some have brazen platters, and some have wooden or plaited baskets. And the liquor which is drunk is, among the rich, wine brought from Italy or from the country about Marseilles; and this is drunk unmixed, but sometimes a little water is mixed with it. But among the poorer classes what is drunk is a beer made of wheat prepared with honey, and oftener still without any honey; and they call it corma. And they all drink it out of the same cup, in small draughts, not drinking more than a serving beaker at a time; but they take frequent draughts: and a slave carries the liquor round, beginning at the right hand and going on to the left; and this is the way in which they are waited on, and in which they worship the gods, always turning towards the right hand. These now are the accounts of the Celts given by Posidonius in the third and in the twentieth books of his History.” Athenaeus of Naucratis, Deipnosophistae, book 4, chapter 36
Celtic Musical Instruments
The Celts utilized a diverse range of musical instruments that were integral to their cultural and social practices. These instruments not only provided entertainment but also played significant roles in traditional rituals and cultural gatherings. Instruments such trumpets, harps, fiddles, gaitas, drums, flutes and lyres.
These instruments were not only tools for music but also symbols of identity and heritage among the Celtic peoples. The trumpet, for example, was prominently featured in military contexts, while the harp and fiddle were central to social gatherings and storytelling traditions. Drums were essential for dance music, highlighting the communal aspect of Celtic musical practices.
When describing the Lusitanians way of life Strabo states:
“they dance to flute and trumpet, dancing in chorus, but also leaping up and crouching low.”Strabo, Geographia, book 3, chapter 3.7
Diodorus Siculus recorded:
“In time of peace, they practice a kind of elfin dance which requires great nimbleness of limb” Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, book 5, Chapter 34.5-35
When describing the Celts Diodorus states:
“Their trumpets are of peculiar nature and such as barbarians use, for when they are blown upon, they give forth a harsh sound, appropriate to the tumult of war. “Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, book 5, Chapter 30
The trumpet used by the Celts was a long, valveless horn made of bronze, often used in warfare to intimidate enemies.
“These men sing to the accompaniment of instruments which are like lyres, and their songs may for either of praise or of obloquy.” Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, book 5, Chapter 31
The lyre is a stringed musical instrument consisting of two arms and a crossbar. Homer in the 8th century BC described two different types western lyres in his writings.
Tartessian Lyre by Yerco Lorka
The Gaita is an air-based instrument whereby the player inflates the bag using his mouth through a tube fitted with a non-return valve. Air is driven into the opening, known as the punteiro, with the left arm controlling the pressure inside the bag. Finger-holes include three for the left hand and four for the right, as well as one at the back for the left thumb.
Lusitanian Gaita and Drum Players – Coimbra, Portugal
Dancing in chorus is a traditional way of dancing in Celtic Portugal, Galicia and Spain and till this day continues to be a much cherished event during the local festivities of each region.
Galician Gaita and Dancing
Overall, the variety of instruments reflects the rich musical heritage of the Celts, which continues to influence music today.
Ancient Celtic Warfare
The warfare of the Celts evolved over time but the Celt warriors were known for their fierce and courageous combat style by ancient historians. This reputation contributed to their warrior like image in the ancient world.
The Celts used both heavy infantry, light infantry, spearman, javelin throwers, archers, slingers and cavalry units in battle and used the natural landscape for ambushes and guerilla tactics. The Celts also held military style contests of different types and some Celtic kings retained poets to sing their praises and historical feats while marching to battle.
When describing the Celtiberians Diodorus states:
“And this people, it would appear, provide for warfare not only excellent cavalry but also foot-soldiers who excel in prowess and endurance. They wear rough black cloaks, the wool of which resembles the hair of goats. As for their arms, certain of the Celtiberians carry light shields like those of the Gauls, and certain carry circular wicker shields as large as an aspis and about their shins and calves they wind greaves made of hair and on their heads, they wear bronze helmets adorned with purple crests. The swords they wear are two-edged and ‘wrought of excellent iron, and they also have dirks a span in length which they use in fighting at close quarters.”Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, book 5, Chapter 33
“And a peculiar practice is: followed by them in the fashioning of their defensive weapons; for they bury plates of iron in the ground and leave them there until in the course of time the rust has eaten out what is weak in the iron, and what is left is only the most unyielding, and of this they then fashion excellent swords and such other objects as pertain to war. The weapon which has been fashioned in the manner described cuts through anything which gets in its-way, for no shield or helmet or bone can withstand a blow from it, because of the exceptional quality of the iron.”Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, book 5, Chapter 33
In 104 BC the Celtiberians defeated the Germanic Cimbrians who attempted to invade northern Iberia. Livius states:
“Having devastated everything between Rhône and Pyrenees, the Cimbrians moved through a mountain pass into Iberia, where they were – after having devastated many districts – routed by the Celtiberians. They returned to Gaul and joined the Teutons in the land of the Veliocassians.”Livy, Periochae, book 66-70
“Celts carried on a guerilla warfare in swamps, in pathless forests, and in deserts; and they made the ignorant Romans believe to be far away what was really near at hand, and kept them in ignorance of the roads and of the facilities for procuring provisions and other necessities.” Strabo, Geographia, book 1, chapter 1.17
“the Lusitanians, it is said, are given to laying ambush, given to spying out, are quick, nimble, and good at deploying troops. They have a small shield two feet in diameter, concave in front, and suspended from the shoulder by means of thongs (for it has neither arm-rings nor handles), Besides these shields they have a dirk or a butcher’s- Most of them wear linen cuirasses; a few wear three crests, but the rest wear helmets made of sinews. The foot-soldiers wear greaves also, and each soldier has several javelins; and some also make use of spears, and the spears have bronze heads.”Strabo, Geographia, book 3, chapter 3.6
“And intermingled with their forces of infantry was a force of cavalry, for their horses were trained to climb mountains, and, when- ever there was need for it, to kneel down promptly at the word of command. “Strabo, Geographia, book 3, chapter 4.15
Regarding the Lusitanians:
“in their wars they march into battle with even step and raise a battle-song as they charge upon the foe.”Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, book 5, Chapter 34.5-35
“In these same days, three hundred Lusitanians fought an engagement against a thousand Romans in a mountain valley. Claudius reports that in this battle seventy Lusitanians and three hundred and twenty Romans lost their lives. When the victorious Lusitanians had scattered and were withdrawing in safety, one of them, a foot soldier, was cut off at some distance from his companions. When Roman cavalrymen suddenly surrounded him, he pierced the horse of one of his assailants with his spear and beheaded the rider with a single blow of his sword. All the others were so terrified that he was able to walk off leisurely and in a contemptuous manner while they looked on.”Orisus – Against the Pagans, book 5, chapter 5
The Lusitanian heavier infantry warriors also used larger oval shields.
The Celts wore bronze helmets with either a low or high crest. The crests are said to have been purple or crimson. The most common headwear seems to have been a simple helmet of bronze or leather, occasionally extended at the back to form a neck guard and with cheek guards added at the sides. Strabo says the Lusitanians wore helmets of sinew with a crest, and sculptures in southern Lusitania do show some form of crested cap or hood. Diodorus Siculus says the Celtiberians wore helmets of brass or copper with red plumes.
The Falcata type sword was the most emblematic weapon used by the Celt warriors. It was without a doubt their weapon of choice for over several centuries. This can be said due to the large amounts of these swords found on excavation sites throughout Portugal and Lusitania.
According to the classical texts, the Falcata used by the Celts was manufactured to perfection. Lusitanian warriors maintained a spiritual connection to their swords and when they died their swords were buried with them. Diodorus reports that the Falcatas were of such superior quality that no helmet, shield or bone could resist its devastating effect.
“The most valiant among the Iberians are those who are known as Lusitanians, who carry in war very small shields which are interwoven with cords of sinew and are able to protect the body unusually well, because they are so tough; and shifting this shield easily as they do in their fighting, now here, now there, they cleverly ward off from their person every blow which comes at them. They also use barbed javelins made entirely of iron, and wear helmets and swords very much like those of the Celtiberians, they hurl the javelin with good effect, even over a long distance, and, in fine, are doughty in dealing their blows. Since they are nimble and wear light arms, they are swift both in flight and in pursuit”Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, book 5, Chapter 34, 1-5
“It is also their custom, when they are formed for battle, to step out in front of the line and to challenge the most valiant men from among their opponents to single combat, brandishing their weapons in front of them to terrify their adversaries. And when any man accepts the challenge to battle, they then break forth into a song in praise of the valiant deeds of their ancestors and in boast of their own high achievements, reviling all the while and belittling their opponent, and trying, in a word, by such talk to strip him of his bold spirit before the combat. “Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, book 5, Chapter 29
“Able as they are to fight in two styles, they first carry on the contest on horseback, and when they have defeated the cavalry they dismount, and assuming the role of foot-soldiers they put up marvellous battles.”Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, book 5, Chapter 33, 33-34
Celt and Iberian cavalry fought alongside Spartan warriors in 369 BC at Corinth where they aided Sparta against Thebes. These Celts and Iberians were sent by Dionysius I of Syracuse and were praised for their effectiveness in combat, helping to secure a victory during the decline of Spartan power. The Celts warriors were part of a force of over 20 triremes that brought reinforcements, including cavalry, which successfully engaged the Thebans.
The Greek military leader and historian, Xenophon of Athens, wrote the following about Celt cavalry tactics:
“At the date of the above transactions the Lacedaemonians were cheered by the arrival of a naval reinforcement from Dionysius, consisting of more than twenty warships, they brought Celts and Iberians and about fifty of their cavalry. The day following, the Thebans and the rest of the allies, posted, at intervals, in battle order, and completely filling the flat land down to the sea on one side, and up to the knolls on the other which form the buttresses of the city, proceeded to destroy everything precious they could lay their hands on in the plain.
The Athenian and Corinthian cavalry, eyeing the strength, physical and numerical, of their antagonists, kept at a safe distance from their armament. But the little body of cavalry lately arrived from Dionysius spread out in a long thin line, and one at one point and one at another galloped along the front, discharging their missiles as they dashed forward, and when the enemy rushed against them, retired, and again wheeling about, showered another volley. Even while so engaged they would dismount from their horses and take breath; and if their foemen galloped up while they were so dismounted, in an instant they had leapt on their horses’ backs and were in full retreat. Or if, again, a party pursued them some distance from the main body, as soon as they turned to retire, they would press upon them, and discharging volleys of missiles, made terrible work, forcing the whole army to advance and retire, merely to keep pace with the movements of fifty horsemen.”Xenophon, Hellenica, Book 7, chapter 1
On a second engagement against the Thebans near Laconia:
“Presently, when Archidamus led the advance, a few only of the enemy cared to await them at the spear’s point, and were slain; the mass of them fled, and fleeing fell. Many were cut down by the cavalry, many by the Celts. When the battle ceased and a trophy had been erected, the Spartan at once dispatched home Demoteles, the herald, with the news. He had to announce not only the greatness of the victory, but the startling fact that, while the enemy’s dead were numerous, not one single Lacedaemonian had been slain.”Xenophon, Hellenica, Book 7, chapter 1
Strabo tells us about Celtic use of horses in warfare:
“they ride double on horseback, though in the time of battle one of the two fights on foot” Strabo, Geographia, book 3, chapter 4.18
The Celts in Lusitania also used slingers as part of their military tactics, often employing them in ambushes and skirmishes. Slingers were integral to Lusitanian warfare, often positioned at the front lines to harass enemy forces before the main infantry engaged. Lusitanian slingers typically used slings made from plant fibers and animal sinews. They would carry multiple slings for different ranges, allowing them to adapt to various combat situations.
The slingers would launch projectiles, such as stones or lead bullets, at enemy troops, causing significant disruption and damage. Their ability to strike from a distance made them valuable in both offensive and defensive operations. In summary, slingers were a key component of the Lusitanian military strategy, contributing to their reputation as skilled warriors in ancient conflicts.
Spears were the main offensive weapon used by Celt warriors, often employed in both throwing and thrusting forms during battles. They were integral to the tactics of light infantry and cavalry who utilized them alongside javelins and swords in combat.
“The spears they brandish, which they call (lanciae), have iron heads a cubit in length and even more, and a little under two palms in breadth; for their swords are not shorter than the javelins of other peoples, and the heads of their javelins are larger than the swords of others. Some of these javelins come from the forge straight, others twist in and out in spiral shapes for their entire length, the purpose being that the thrust may not only cut the flesh, but mangle it as well, and that the withdrawal of the spear may lacerate the wound.”Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, book 5, Chapter 30
To this day, the Celt word “lança“ continues to mean “spear” in Portugal.
Lusitanian warriors and other Celts also used flotation devices such as bladders, most likely made of inflatable goat skins or Ox skins, allowing them to perform tactical river crossings effectively.
“They who had gone out to get forage or corn, were chased by the light troops of the Lusitanians, and the targeteers of Hither Spain, who were well acquainted with the country, and could readily swim across the river, because it is the custom of all those people not to join their armies without bladders.”Julius Ceasar, De Bello Gallico and Other Commentaries, book XLVIII
Religion of the Celts
The Celtic religion refers to the spiritual beliefs and practices of the Celts as practiced in their homeland of Lusitania. The religion of the Celts shares similarities with other ancient European religions, particularly in the worship of a pantheon of deities, which often included gods associated with nature and fertility.
Through the Celtic inscriptions, a great pantheon of Celtic deities begins to emerge. Worship practices involved various rituals, including sacrifices, often of bulls, to honor the gods. Inscriptions and altars found in the region provide evidence of these practices, indicating a rich tradition of devotion.
We know from Strabo:
“the Celtiberians and their neighbours on the north offer sacrifice to a nameless god at the seasons of the full moon, by night, in front of the doors of their houses, and whole households dance in chorus and keep it up all night.” Strabo, Geographia, book 3, chapter 4.16
The main deities of the Celts:
Reve (Reue) – sky god associated with lightning, thunder and mountains, with authority to sit in judgement of the other gods, and seen as the protector of man. He is the most widely-referenced member of the Celtic pantheon, associated with the sacrifice of bulls as a form of worship.
Endovellico – the protector of the people and land associated with agriculture.
Ataegina, the goddess of fertility and earth symbolizing abundance, often connected with Endovellico.
Epone – was a protector of horses, donkeys, and mules. She was particularly a goddess of fertility, as shown by her attributes of a patera, cornucopia, ears of grain and the presence of foals in some sculptures.
Nabia – the goddess of freshwaters, associated with earth and sacred springs, the deity of water, fountains and rivers. Her name still endures in the region through the Navia River and the Fountain of the Idol in northern Portugal.
Bandua – associated with war and hunting. The name appears in numerous dedications and often linked to a town or a location (e.g. Bandua Roudaeco, Bandua Etobrico or Bandua Brealiacui). The deity was the protector of the local community. in one dedication is considered a god of the war flag or standard. Appears to have enjoyed great success among the Celts of Braga.
Cosso – warrior god who attained great popularity among the Celts in southern Galicia, and was one of the most revered.
Berobreo – god of the Otherworld and beyond. The largest shrine dedicated to this deity documented until now, stood in the fort of the Torch of Donón in Galicia.
Bormanico– god of hot springs.
Lugu (Lucubo) – god of prosperity, trade and craft occupations; his figure is associated with the spear and is one of the most common among the Celts. Many place names are derived from it throughout Celtic Europe.
Trebarouna – is a Celtic goddess associated with the home and protection. She is associated with another, male deity named Reve. Her worship was primarily located in the regions of Portugal and Galicia, with various Celtic language inscriptions and altars dedicated to her found in these areas.
Kontebria – is a sun goddess from Lusitanian Celtic mythology in the region of Cantabria. The reverence for Kontebria indicates a continuity of sun worship in the region, which persisted during the ages.
Festivals and ceremonies dedicated to specific deities were an important part of the religious life of the Celts. These events were often tied to the agricultural calendar, with rituals designed to ensure the fertility of the land and the protection of crops. For example, festivals dedicated to Nabia might have been held in the spring, when the rivers and springs were at their fullest, to invoke the goddess’s blessing for a bountiful harvest.
These festivals typically involved processions, music, dance, and the offerings. The community would come together to celebrate the gods and renew their commitment to the shared religious practices that bound them together. Such festivals also served as an opportunity to strengthen social ties and reinforce the communal identity.
Celtic religion reflects a complex interplay of indigenous beliefs and influences from nature, showcasing a vibrant spiritual life that persisted through the ages.
Celtic Weddings
Celtic weddings were said to have been similar to that of Greek weddings.
“They marry in the same way as the Greeks. “Strabo, Geographia, book 3, chapter 3.7
Ancient Celtic weddings were primarily arranged for social responsibility and reproduction, often lacking legal recognition while Roman weddings were more formalized. Celtic marriages emphasized the union of households.
Celtic marriages were typically arranged by parents or matchmakers; the focus was on producing legitimate heirs and strengthening family ties. The ceremony lacked formal legal documentation, relying instead on family witnesses. Celts focused on social obligations.
“for instance, it is the custom among the Cantabrians for the husbands to give dowries to their wives, for the daughters to be left as heirs, and the brothers to be married off by their sisters”Strabo, Geographia, book 3, chapter 4.18
Celtic Cultural Art and Craftsmanship
The art of the Celts traces its roots from the Atlantic Bronze Age culture of the Lusitanian region, this culture eventually spread throughout central and eastern Europe. Celtic artwork and craftsmanship is quite well known for its ornaments made of bronze, as well as weaponry and iron tools of very high quality.
Typically, the overarching themes of Celtic artworks and sculptures are complex symbolism, ornamental geometric designs, and non-linear patterns.
Celtic Lunulas – Chao de Lamas Coimbra, Portugal – 2nd Century BC
Celtiberian buckle – 2nd Century BC
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